Mineral Groups
Native elements are minerals that are made up of a single type of atom, in contrast to most minerals which are composed of a combination of elements. There are relatively few native elements, but they are often some of the most well-known and valuable minerals. Here are some examples:
Gold (Au) - A soft, yellow metal that is often used in jewelry and currency due to its rarity and beauty. Gold is also a good conductor of electricity and is used in electronics.
Silver (Ag) - A shiny, white metal that is also used in jewelry and currency, as well as in mirrors, electrical contacts, and photography.
Copper (Cu) - A reddish-brown metal that is a good conductor of electricity and is used in wiring, plumbing, and electrical equipment.
Carbon (C) - Carbon can occur naturally in several forms, including diamond, graphite, and fullerenes.
Diamond (C) - A clear, crystalline form of carbon that is the hardest naturally occurring substance. Diamonds are used in jewelry, cutting tools, and industrial abrasives.
Graphite (C) - A dark, flaky form of carbon that is used as a lubricant, in pencils, and as a conductor of heat and electricity.
Fullerene (C) - Spherical or ellipsoidal in shape, they are made up of interconnected carbon atoms arranged in hexagonal and pentagonal rings. The most well-known fullerene is Buckminsterfullerene (C60), which is named after the architect Buckminster Fuller, who designed geodesic domes that have a similar shape.
Sulfur (S) - A yellow, brittle mineral that has a distinct odor and is used in the production of sulfuric acid and fertilizers.
Platinum (Pt) - A dense, silver-white metal that is a good conductor of electricity and is used in catalytic converters, jewelry, and chemical processing.
Iron (Fe) - A metallic, silvery-gray element that is the most common element on Earth by mass. Iron is used in steel production, construction, and transportation.
Aluminum (Al) - A lightweight, silvery metal that is the third most abundant element on Earth. Aluminum is used in construction, transportation, and packaging.
Helium (He) - A colorless, odorless gas that is the second lightest element and the second most abundant element in the universe. Helium is used in cryogenics, medical imaging, and as a coolant in nuclear reactors.
Mercury (Hg) - A heavy, silvery liquid that is the only metallic element that is liquid at room temperature. Mercury is used in thermometers, fluorescent lights, and electrical switches.
Selenium (Se) - A gray, brittle metalloid that is used in electronics, glassmaking, and as a dietary supplement.
Native Elements (Self Bonding)
The silicate group of minerals includes many of the most common minerals in Earth's crust and are important rock-forming minerals. Most feature a metal combined with silicon and oxygen. Examples include asbestos, mica, quartz and feldspar.
Chemical composition: Silicate minerals are composed of silicate tetrahedra (SiO4) and a variety of cations, including aluminum, magnesium, iron, potassium, sodium, and calcium. The specific combination of cations determines the mineral species.
Crystal structure: Silica tetrahedra can link together in a variety of ways, creating a wide range of silicate minerals. Silicates can be further divided into several sub-groups, including nesosilicates, sorosilicates, cyclosilicates, inosilicates, phyllosilicates, and tectosilicates.
Hardness: Silicate minerals have a wide range of hardness, from very soft (such as talc) to very hard (such as quartz).
Cleavage: Silicate minerals can exhibit cleavage, which means that they break along specific planes of weakness. The direction and quality of cleavage varies between different mineral species.
Density: The density of silicate minerals ranges from relatively light (such as feldspar) to relatively heavy (such as garnet).
Color: Silicate minerals can be colorless, white, gray, brown, green, blue, red, or black, depending on their chemical composition and impurities.
Refractive index: Silicate minerals have a relatively high refractive index, which means that they bend light more than many other minerals.
Silicate Bonding Network
Framework: quarts (SiO2), feldspar trio,
Layer: mica (Muscovite, Biotite)
Ring: beryl (Be3Al2Si6O18)
Double Chain: amphibole minerals
Single Chain: pyroxene minerals
island olivine
Silicates SiO4
Carbonates are a group of minerals that contain the carbonate ion (CO3) as a major component. They are the second most abundant group of minerals and are a result of a bond between carbon, oxygen and one or more metals. Examples include calcite and aragonite (CaCO3) and dolomite (Ca,MgCO3).
Chemical composition: Carbonate minerals are primarily composed of carbon, oxygen, and one or more metallic elements such as calcium, magnesium, iron, and zinc. The most common carbonate mineral is calcite, which is composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
Crystal structure: Aragonite is a polymorph of calcite, which means that it has the same chemical formula as calcite, but a different crystal structure. Aragonite crystals are orthorhombic, meaning that they have three unequal axes that are perpendicular to each other.
Hardness: Carbonate minerals are generally soft, with a hardness of 3-4 on the Mohs scale.
Cleavage: Carbonate minerals have good cleavage in one or more directions due to the arrangement of their crystal structure. Calcite, for example, has perfect cleavage in three directions, forming rhombohedrons.
Density: Carbonate minerals have a relatively low density, ranging from 2.7 g/cm³ (calcite) to 4.5 g/cm³ (siderite).
Reactivity: Carbonate minerals are generally reactive with acid due to the presence of carbonate ions. When exposed to acid, they react by releasing carbon dioxide gas.
Color: Carbonate minerals can be colorless, white, gray, yellow, green, blue, or pink, depending on the specific metallic element present.
Carbonate minerals are important components of sedimentary rocks, such as limestone and dolomite, and also occur in some metamorphic and igneous rocks. They are also economically important as sources of minerals such as calcium carbonate (used in cement, paper, and plastic production) and magnesium carbonate (used in refractory materials and fertilizers).
Carbonates CO3
Sulfides are a group of minerals that contain one or more metallic elements combined with sulfur. Examples include galena (PbS), Pyrite (FeS2) and other minerals with sulfur as the as negative ion (anion) such as chalcopyrite, and sphalerite.
Chemical composition: Sulfide minerals are primarily composed of one or more metallic elements combined with sulfur. The most common metallic elements found in sulfides are iron, copper, zinc, lead, and silver, but many other elements can also be present.
Crystal structure: Sulfide minerals are dominated by a distinctive cubic crystal structure. Many sulfide minerals have a metallic luster and a distinctive color, such as the brassy yellow color of pyrite.
Hardness: Sulfide minerals are generally hard, with a hardness of 2.5-4 on the Mohs scale. Some sulfides, such as galena, are relatively soft and can be scratched with a fingernail.
Cleavage: Sulfide minerals often have poor or indistinct cleavage due to their crystal structure.
Density: Sulfide minerals are typically dense, with a density of 4-8 g/cm³. Some sulfides, such as galena and sphalerite, are exceptionally dense and can feel heavy in the hand.
Reactivity: Many sulfide minerals are reactive with acid, producing hydrogen sulfide gas. This can be a useful diagnostic test for identifying sulfide minerals.
Occurrence: Sulfide minerals are commonly found in hydrothermal veins, where they are formed by the precipitation of metallic ions from hot, mineral-rich fluids. They can also occur as disseminations in sedimentary rocks, and as accessory minerals in igneous rocks.
Sulfide minerals have many important applications in industry and technology. They are used as sources of metallic elements for the production of metals such as copper, zinc, and lead, and as semiconductors in electronic devices. They also have important roles in the formation of ore deposits and as indicators of mineralization in exploration geology.
Sulfides S
Oxides are a group of minerals that contain one or more metallic elements combined with oxygen. Examples include hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), corundum (Al2O3).
Chemical composition: Oxide minerals are primarily composed of one or more metallic elements combined with oxygen. The most common metallic elements found in oxides are iron, aluminum, titanium, and manganese, but many other elements can also be present.
Crystal structure: Oxide minerals have a variety of crystal structures, including cubic, hexagonal, and rhombohedral. Many oxide minerals have a dull or earthy appearance, but some, such as hematite and magnetite, have a metallic luster and a distinctive color.
Hardness: Oxide minerals are generally hard, with a hardness of 5-7 on the Mohs scale. Some oxides, such as cuprite, are relatively soft and can be scratched with a fingernail.
Cleavage: Oxide minerals often have poor or indistinct cleavage due to their crystal structure.
Density: Oxide minerals are typically dense, with a density of 3-7 g/cm³. Some oxides, such as magnetite, are exceptionally dense and can feel heavy in the hand.
Reactivity: Many oxide minerals are relatively inert, and are not reactive with acid. However, some, such as ilmenite, can react with acid under certain conditions.
Occurrence: Oxide minerals are found in a wide variety of geological environments, including igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. They can also occur as secondary minerals in soils and weathered rock, and as accessory minerals in ore deposits.
Oxide minerals have many important applications in industry and technology. They are used as sources of metallic elements for the production of metals such as iron, aluminum, and titanium, and as pigments in paints and ceramics. They also have important roles in the formation of ore deposits and as indicators of mineralization in exploration geology.
Oxides O
Halides are a group of minerals that contain one or more metallic elements combined with one or more halogen elements, such as chlorine, fluorine, bromine, or iodine. Examples include halite (NaCl) and fluorite (CaF2)
Chemical composition: Halide minerals are primarily composed of one or more metallic elements combined with one or more halogen elements. The most common metallic elements found in halides are sodium, potassium, and magnesium, but many other elements can also be present.
Crystal structure: They are characterized by their typically cubic crystal structure and often have a salty taste.
Hardness: Halide minerals are generally soft, with a hardness of 2-3 on the Mohs scale. Some halides, such as fluorite, can be relatively hard and have a hardness of 4.
Cleavage: Halide minerals often have good cleavage, with planes of cleavage that are parallel to the crystal faces.
Density: Halide minerals are typically relatively dense, with a density of 2-4 g/cm³.
Solubility: Many halide minerals are soluble in water, and some, such as halite, are used as sources of salt for human consumption.
Occurrence: Halide minerals are found in a variety of geological environments, including evaporite deposits, hydrothermal veins, and volcanic fumaroles. They can also occur as secondary minerals in soils and weathered rock.
Halide minerals have many important applications in industry and technology. They are used as sources of halogen elements, such as chlorine and fluorine, which have a range of uses in chemical synthesis and industry. They are also used as sources of salt for human consumption and in the production of certain chemicals and materials.
Halides - Halogen Group
Hydroxides are a group of minerals that contain one or more metallic elements combined with the hydroxide ion (OH-). Examples include limonite and brucite.
Chemical composition: Hydroxide minerals are primarily composed of one or more metallic elements combined with the hydroxide ion. The most common metallic elements found in hydroxides are iron, aluminum, and manganese, but many other elements can also be present.
Crystal structure: Hydroxide minerals have a variety of crystal structures, including monoclinic, orthorhombic, and hexagonal. Many hydroxide minerals have a dull or earthy appearance, but some, such as goethite, have a metallic luster and a distinctive color.
Hardness: Hydroxide minerals are generally soft, with a hardness of 1-5 on the Mohs scale. Some hydroxides, such as gibbsite, are relatively soft and can be scratched with a fingernail.
Cleavage: Hydroxide minerals often have poor or indistinct cleavage due to their crystal structure.
Density: Hydroxide minerals are typically relatively light, with a density of 2-5 g/cm³. Some hydroxides, such as brucite, are exceptionally light and can feel almost weightless in the hand.
Reactivity: Hydroxide minerals are generally reactive with acid, producing water and the corresponding salt of the metallic element. This can be a useful diagnostic test for identifying hydroxide minerals.
Occurrence: Hydroxide minerals are found in a wide variety of geological environments, including igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. They can also occur as secondary minerals in soils and weathered rock, and as accessory minerals in ore deposits.
Hydroxide minerals have many important applications in industry and technology. They are used as sources of metallic elements for the production of metals such as aluminum, and as pigments in paints and ceramics. They also have important roles in the formation of ore deposits and as indicators of mineralization in exploration geology.
Hydroxides OH
Sulfates are a group of minerals that contain one or more metallic elements combined with the sulfate ion (SO4 2-). Examples include gypsum (CaSO4H2O), barite (BaSO4).
Chemical composition: Sulfate minerals are primarily composed of one or more metallic elements combined with the sulfate ion. The most common metallic elements found in sulfates are calcium, magnesium, and iron, but many other elements can also be present.
Crystal structure: Sulfate minerals have a variety of crystal structures, including monoclinic, orthorhombic, and trigonal. Many sulfate minerals have a distinctive crystalline appearance, with well-defined crystal faces and sharp edges.
Hardness: Sulfate minerals are generally soft to moderately hard, with a hardness of 2-4 on the Mohs scale. Some sulfates, such as anhydrite, can be relatively hard and have a hardness of 3-3.5.
Cleavage: Sulfate minerals often have good cleavage, with planes of cleavage that are parallel to the crystal faces.
Density: Sulfate minerals are typically relatively dense, with a density of 2-4 g/cm³.
Solubility: Many sulfate minerals are soluble in water, and some, such as gypsum, are used in construction and agriculture as sources of calcium and sulfur.
Occurrence: Sulfate minerals are found in a variety of geological environments, including evaporite deposits, hydrothermal veins, and sedimentary rocks. They can also occur as secondary minerals in soils and weathered rock.
Sulfate minerals are used as sources of metallic elements, such as iron and magnesium, in the production of metals and alloys. They are also used as sources of sulfur for the production of sulfuric acid and other chemicals. In addition, some sulfate minerals, such as gypsum, are used in construction and agriculture as sources of calcium and sulfur.
Sulfates SO4
Phosphates are a group of minerals that contain one or more metallic elements combined with the phosphate ion (PO4 3-). Examples include apatite (CaPO4) and monzatite.
Chemical composition: Phosphate minerals are primarily composed of one or more metallic elements combined with the phosphate ion. The most common metallic elements found in phosphates are calcium, magnesium, and iron, but many other elements can also be present.
Crystal structure: Phosphate minerals have a variety of crystal structures, including monoclinic, orthorhombic, and hexagonal. Many phosphate minerals have a distinctive crystalline appearance, with well-defined crystal faces and sharp edges.
Hardness: Phosphate minerals are generally moderately hard to hard, with a hardness of 3-5 on the Mohs scale. Some phosphates, such as apatite, can be relatively hard and have a hardness of 5.
Cleavage: Phosphate minerals often have good cleavage, with planes of cleavage that are parallel to the crystal faces.
Density: Phosphate minerals are typically relatively dense, with a density of 2-4 g/cm³.
Solubility: Some phosphate minerals are soluble in water, but others, such as apatite, are relatively insoluble.
Occurrence: Phosphate minerals are found in a variety of geological environments, including sedimentary rocks, hydrothermal veins, and igneous rocks. They are also found in soils and as secondary minerals in weathered rock.
Phosphate minerals have many important applications in industry and agriculture. They are used as sources of phosphorus for the production of fertilizers and other chemicals. They are also used as sources of metallic elements, such as calcium and magnesium, in the production of metals and alloys. In addition, some phosphate minerals, such as apatite, are used in the production of ceramics and as gemstones.
Phosphates PO4
Tungstates are a group of minerals that contain tungsten combined with one or more metallic elements and oxygen. They are rare, examples include wolframite a salt of tungsten ore.
Chemical composition: Tungstate minerals are primarily composed of tungsten combined with one or more metallic elements and oxygen. The most common metallic elements found in tungstates are calcium, lead, and iron, but many other elements can also be present.
Crystal structure: Tungstate minerals have a variety of crystal structures, including tetragonal, monoclinic, and hexagonal. Many tungstate minerals have a distinctive crystalline appearance, with well-defined crystal faces and sharp edges.
Hardness: Tungstate minerals are generally hard to very hard, with a hardness of 4-7.5 on the Mohs scale. Some tungstates, such as scheelite, can be relatively soft and have a hardness of 4.5-5.
Cleavage: Tungstate minerals often have good cleavage, with planes of cleavage that are parallel to the crystal faces.
Density: Tungstate minerals are typically relatively dense, with a density of 5-8 g/cm³.
Solubility: Tungstate minerals are generally insoluble in water and acids.
Occurrence: Tungstate minerals are found in a variety of geological environments, including hydrothermal veins, pegmatites, and skarns. They can also occur as secondary minerals in soils and weathered rock.
Tungstate minerals have many important applications in industry, particularly in the production of tungsten metal and alloys. They are also used in the production of other tungsten compounds, such as tungsten trioxide, which is used as a flame retardant and in the production of ceramic glazes. Tungstate minerals are also sometimes used as gemstones, particularly scheelite, which is prized for its yellow-orange fluorescence under ultraviolet light.