London
1856
In London, Jessie Meriton White wrote 14 hospitals asking for admission to attend a three year course of study. She received 14 versions of vague excuses “many practical inconveniences” “inexpedient”
The Edinburgh Seven
Sophia Jex-Blake
Edith Pechey
Chaplin Ayrton
Grant
Thorne
Mary Anderson
Emily Bovell
Also:
Elizabette Ken
Mary Cudell
Emily Rosaline Massow
Mary Spalding Roberts Sinclair
Elizabeth May Clark
“I began the study of medicine merely from personal motives; now I am also impelled by the desire to remove women from the care of such young ruffians.”
Scotland
Sophia Jex-Blake
1840
Born to evangelical parents, she had a heavily religious upbringing. Her headstrong ways caused conflict at home and away at boarding school.
1858
At 18, she decided she wanted to attend Queen’s College, but her parents opposed her. It took a fit of “hysterics” to convince them [TCOTP, 91] (what does this even mean? Does hysterics mean crying, does it mean yelling, does it mean breaking things, or it just raising ones voice?). Sophia outsmarted her governesses and boarding school teachers [NWITLS, 204].
She was delighted to be at school, excited by both the work and the independence. She soon was offered a post teaching college mathematics. Her parents strongly objected to Sophia receiving money, for being paid for working.
“I believe I love women too much ever to love a man”
London
Elizabeth Garrett Anderson
1858
The April issue of English Woman’s Journal Elizabeth Garrett Anderson was inspired by an article about Florence Nightingale and her impacts during the Crimean War. Her influence on unsanitary conditions lead to immediate positive changed in the number of sick and wounded. Read more about her story HERE
The second in the same issue was about about another Elizabeth, The Lady Doctor Elizabeth Blackwell, written by her sister Anna. [WIWC, 47]
The 1858 Medical Act
At the time, the world of medicine in England mirrored that of society. Physicians treated the Gentlemen and their families, only the fellows, members and licentiates of the Royal College of Physicians held this status within society. Surgeons were seen more like skilled craftsmen, though often as well trained and able as any physician. At the bottom of the hierarchy were apothecaries, viewed on level with tradesmen [TCOTP, 22]. A physician, though maybe ranked higher among his medical peers, was not a highly sought out position at the time. A successful doctor would send his son into the church or the army to have the most success in life. The low wages for the average medical man made them especially weary of anyone else entering the field, especially women, fearing they would gain an advantage in the growing field of obstetrics.
In Theory, the 1858 Medical Act was designed to ensure the professional quality of all medical practitioners, but in practice it acted to exclude women from the official registry of Great Britain and Ireland. Possession of one or various qualities could qualify an individual to be on the registry. One main problem was that the 19 different licensing bodies had wildly different standards of examinations so the resulting registry lacked no uniformity in expertise as expected.
The act did not make it a crime to practice medicine for those names not included on the registry, only those individuals were not protected legally the way a “doctor” was.
less than a third of of medical men had degrees, this act did nothing to change that [THOTP, 73]
London
Elizabeth Garrett Anderson
1858
The April issue of English Woman’s Journal Elizabeth Garrett Anderson was inspired by an article about Florence Nightingale and her impacts during the Crimean War. Her influence on unsanitary conditions lead to immediate positive changed in the number of sick and wounded. Read more about her story HERE
The second in the same issue was about about another Elizabeth, The Lady Doctor Elizabeth Blackwell, written by her sister Anna. [WIWC, 47]
1859
Elizabeth Blackwell returns to London to be placed on the List of Registered Medical Practitioners. The law was changing so that if you received a degree from a foreign university you had to have practice in England prior to 1858. Thanks to Elizabeth Blackwell’s internship after graduation she was eligible. Letters of recommendation from Florence Nightingale surely helped. [TCOFP, 42] [WIWC, 52]
Elizabeth Blackwell gave lectures across London, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson attended at least two of them and continued corresponding with the first lady doctor about the process of becoming a doctor.
1860
Elizabeth Blackwell publishes another piece, “Letter to Young Ladies Desirous of Studying Medicine” which outlined the guidelines a young woman should consider. Elizabeth Garrett Anderson fit the description: between 20-30 and in good health, a liberal English education, French, Latin and Greek. Year one consists of studying at home or under the direction of a physician. Then move on to work as a nurse in a hospital, then train in a laboratory, then girls most travel to America to attend of the few medical schools open to women. [WIWC, 58]
By this time Elizabeth Garrett Anderson had started attending lectures at Middlesex Hospital’s surgical ward, she supplemented this time with tutoring, but was frustrated at her lack of access to the dissection room. She eventually gained admittance to more lectures, but she insulted the boys by doing better than them. At the time, medicine was not a highly sought profession, so the students tended to be rather wild and roguish group. They petitioned to have Elizabeth removed from the dissection room, and it worked. The school kicked her out. [WIWC, 77]
Edinburgh
1862
In May, Sophia Jex-Blake and Elizabeth Garrett Anderson head to Edinburgh to meet with Dr. John Balfort, professor of Botany and dean of the medical school at the University of Edinburgh (One of the oldest and top rated in the world, the model for American medical schools - needs a reference). It was the first medical school in the United Kingdom [WIWC, 88].
The women applied to be accepted as regular medial students at the university with a letter of encouragement from Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell. Their wait was in vein, the university replied with a nondecision insomuch that they refused to even entertain the idea of whether the women should be admitted to the university by a margin of eighteen votes against sixteen in favor… [WIWC, 90]
“they have not refused to admit, only postponed the question indefinitely”
Sophia left to teach English at a German boarding school [The Grand Ducal Institute in Mannheim, Germany [NWITLS, 203]. At first she was filled with excitement, but that faded eventually leaving her feeling like a failure. She was taunted by the girls for her lack of singing ability along with her poor painting and embroidery skills. After eight months she left, returning home to Brighton.
“I seem so oppressed with a sense of the greatness, the weight of my work, and of my own miserable insufficiency for it. Oh, so weak and stupid and unfit! And it isn’t humility, it’s just truth. I’m horribly showy, always deceiving people into a belief of talents I haven’t.”
Across the Seas
1865
Sophia travels to the United States and meets up with Dr. Lucy Sewall [TCOTP, 92]. Follow the link below to learn more about the history of women in medicine in America.
By this time Elizabeth Garrett Anderson successfully qualified for her license from the Society of Apothecaries which enabled her to be put on the official registry of doctors (though she does not actually have what we consider a modern medical education yet).
1866
Elizabeth hopes to open a school and hospital, there are three students following her route Frances Morgan, Sarah Goff & Ellen Phillips.
1867
The three young women pass the exam, but the Society’s Court of Examiners changed the qualifications so that only students who received a “public, medical school” instruction could qualify. Since women weren’t allowed in public school, they were therefore officially disqualified. This meant the end of “the Apothecary Route” like Dr. Elizabeth Garrett Anderson. Instead women needed a new plan. Read below for more on their lives. Frances Morgan took a different route, she went on to Zurich to attend medical school. Read her story HERE. The situation in America was equally dire, by this time all the major Medical schools were closed to women. Paris & Zurich were the only known options.
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Sarah Goff, a rich Irish heiress, married Heckford on 28 January 1867, three days after passing the Apothecaries examination. They founded the East London Hospital for Children in Hackney; it opened on their first wedding anniversary. Nathaniel died of tuberculosis on 14 December 1871. Sarah and Frances remained good friends until Sarah’s death in 1903; Frances was a trustee of a fund set up by Sarah at Coutts Bank in July 1874. Sarah moved to South Africa in 1878, returning to England in 1901.1
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Ellen Phillips was from a wealthy Quaker family. After quitting her studies she and her sister Mary opened a small dispensary for women and children at 13 Virginia Row, Bethnal Green on 12 July 1867. In 1868 it moved to Hackney Road as the North Eastern Hospital for Children. Ellen married Alexander Fox, another young London Hospital doctor, and they emigrated to New Zealand. After his death in 1876 Ellen returned to Britain, converted to Roman Catholicism and died in January 1890.
1868
With “The Apothecary Route” closed, Sophia Jex-Blake was determined to forge a trail for women in her home country. For woman who couldn’t afford the expense of travel and living abroad, for women who only spoke English, for women who wanted to remain closer to home. She placed an advertisement seeking other likeminded women. She got this response from Edith Pechey:
Edinburgh
1869
“Do you think anything more is requisite to ensure success than moderate abilities and a good share of perseverance? I believe I may lay claim to these, together with a real love of the subjects of study, but as regards any thorough knowledge of these subjects at present, I fear I am deficient in most. ”
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London University recently rejected the admission of women to the exams, Sophia looked to Cambridge University where Professor Sidgwick admitted:
“Not one of us thinks that there is the smallest change of your request being granted…The question then comes - Will the raising of the matter now, advance or retard our ultimate success?”
He goes on to suggest great quietness and moderation seemed the best way to go on. It was disappointing news for Sophia. Fortunately positive news came from Edinburgh, Josephine Butler wrote that Professor David Masson, Professor of Rhetorick and English Literature and Sir James Simpson, Friend of the Blackwells were interested to see her.
Sophia wrote up a formal application for submission to the Faculty, citing the successful admissions in Paris & Zurich, she urged the importance for women doctors for their own sex and that these women should be fully qualified. She was willing to accept any conditions or reservations imposed by the university and said she would withdraw her application if found impactable for her to continue. Maybe these terms come back to haunt her during “The Hope Affair.”
They did not absolutely reject her, after all she was young, not unattractive and obviously a lady. It was easier to promise to think over the matter rather than refuse. But when the time came, the court decided it didn't make sense for all these concessions for "one lady"
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Sophia Jex-Black was sure she could find other women to join her. She received a letter from Isabel Thorne saying that she and possibly two or three other ladies were interested in starting school.
Isabel was just considering a foreign degree when she read of Sophia's attempt in the Scottsman.
returns to Edinburgh this time she has several other women joining her. They are the first women to matriculate at Edinburgh University [NWITLS, 204]. A condition of their entry was that they must take all their courses separately from the men, so they need to find sympathetic professors who will teach double lessons, the women are also forced to pay extra for this “service.” Sophia was forced to borrow a great deal of money from her mother to pay the extra costs for herself and for some of her fellow women students [TCOTP, 104].
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Item description
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Mr. Hoggan is George Hoggan who would go on to marry Dr. Frances Morgan Hoggan #2 of the Zurich 7. George was born in Edinburgh to a modest family. Leaving school at 12 he went on to join the Indian navy as an engineer and served through the “1857 Indian Mutiny” the “1860 China War” and the “1868 Abyssinian (Ethiopian) Campaign.”
It’s reported that when Dr. Livingston visited India in early 1866 he asked if Hoggan could accompany him on his fatal African expedition in search of the source of the Nile river. (from George’s Obituary in the British Medical Journal 1891).
School Starts
1869
“During the first session all went smoothly; the women received the same instruction, and passed the same examinations, as the other students; taking, by the bye, more than their share of honours in the class-lists...but they lost several friends in the Medical Faculty by death or resignation, and the hostile element became strengthened by the consequent changes.”
The Hope Affair
1870
Many who opposed the women students assumed the inferior quality of the female brain would lead to the eventual failure of the students, they just needed to sit back and watch it unfold.
At the end of the winter session (1869-1870) none of the women had failed, four out of five had gained Honours and Edith Pechey came out ahead of everyone in her year on the chemistry exam.
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The Hope Scholarship was an award handed out each year to the best student in Chemistry.
It was founded by Professor Hope, who made an acceptation for women by allowing them into the side door to attend his chemistry lectures. The money Professor Hope accepted from these women students formed the financial prize of the Hope Scholarship.
In addition to a cash price, the award came with valuable access to the chemistry laboratory.
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The professor had duplicated his lessons to help the women so in one sense he was a supporter.
He was unwilling to award Edith Pechey with the Hope Scholarship, ironic as it was coming from the fees paid from women students of the past. He awarded Edith with one of the five bronze medals meant for the top five students, but the male student below Edith was awarded the Hope Scholarship.
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Edith didn't get the money, she didn't get access to the chemistry lab, but for some reason, to justify his actions, Professor held back the certificates of attendance which was essential for them to present themselves for professional examinations. Instead he granted them a watered down "certificate of some sort"
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The choice of the university Senatus to deprive Edith of what she clearly won attracted widespread attention along with very bad press.
Edith was a charming, pretty, modest girl who along with the others had gone about their business quietly and unobtrusively. Sympathy for her was widespread and the university's reputation suffered as a result, which led to further outrage that the men who voted to deprive her should not have had to be put in the position to vote on that issue because she shouldn't have been a student in the first place.
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Since the women still had to take class separate from the boys, they had to seek out professors who would teach a separate course for them. Pressure was applied to Professor within the university discouraging cooperation with the women. This leads the women to The Edinburgh Extra-mural School, a fully qualified school not regulated by the University Senatus.
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In 1884, Dr. Frances Morgan Hoggan gave an account of the incident via her husband Dr. Hoggan’s presence and support for the women students. Frances goes on to say that the women students had been given privileges to study there, but had no rights. She said that he said that because of that they were ineligible for any prizes as they had only been attending private class. (They were forced to attend separate private classes as part of their negotiation for entry to the medical school, they had to pay a lot extra for those private classes and had to separately organize and arrange these classes with the professors).
Frances goes on to say that it was a “want of tract or patience” which caused problems for the women students and that they would have aroused less opposition if they had carried on their “policy of unobtrusively working on, claiming no distinctions, and sedulously and quietly avoiding all occasions of rivalry between the sexes which led to such marked success in Zurich and Paris [TCOTP, 115].
…easy for you to say Frances.
The Riot at Surgeons Hall
1870 Mid November
The women were squeezed out from the traditional classes at the University, but they found a new route through The Edinburgh Extra-mural School. Started in 1840 it was a fully qualified university, but was not governed by the university senetaus. Over the summer, Dr. Alleyn Nicolson opened his classes to women and in October Dr. Handyside and Dr. Heron Watson admitted them to his lectures on anatomy and surgery. Full classes began on Novermber 1st and the ladies could feel a change in tone, but didn’t know what was coming.
[Mary Anderson - sister-in-law to the newly married Dr. Elizabeth Garrett Anderson is said to be in school in Edinburgh TCOTP, 128].
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Various small circumstances had led us to anticipate something unpleasant; and on the afternoon of Friday, November 18th 1870, we women walked down together to Surgeons' Hall. As soon as we came in sight of the gates, we found a dense mob filling up the roadway in front of them, comprising some dozen of the lowest class of our fellow-students at Surgeons' Hall, with many more of the same class from the University, a certain number of street rowdies, and some hundreds of gaping spectators, who took no particular part in the matter.
Not a single policeman was visible, though the crowd was sufficient to stop all traffic for about an hour. We walked straight up to the gates, which remained open until we came within a yard of them, when they were slammed in our faces by a number of young men who stood within, smoking and passing about bottles of whisky, while they abused us in the foulest possible language, which I am thankful to say I have never heard equaled before or since.
We waited quietly on the step to see if the rowdies were to have it all their own way, and in a minute we saw another fellow student of ours, Mr. Sanderson, rush down from the Surgeons' Hall, and wrench open the gate, in spite of the howls and efforts of our half-tipsy opponents. We were quick to seize the chance offered, and in a very few seconds we had all passed through the gate, and entered the Anatomical classroom, where the usual examination was conducted in spite of the yells and howls resounding outside, and the forcible intrusion of a luckless sheep, that was pushed in by the rioters. 'Let it remain,' said Dr. Handyside; 'it has more sense than those who sent it here.'
At the close of the class the lecturer offered to let us out by a back door, but I glanced round the ranks of our fellow-students, and remarked that I thought there were 'enough gentlemen here to prevent any harm to us.' I had judged rightly, In a moment a couple of dozen students came down from the benches, headed by Mr. Sanderson, Mr. Hoggan, Mr. Macleod, and Mr. Lyon, formed each side, and, encompassed by them, we passed through the still howling crowd at the gate, and reached home with no other injuries than those inflicted on our dresses by the mud hurled at us by our chivalrous foes.
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Robert Wilson, a sympathetic student wrote to Edith to say:
"May I venture to hint my belief that the real cause of the riots is the way some of the professors run you down in their lectures. They never lose a chance of stirring up hatred against you. For all I know they may have more knowledge of the riotous conspiracy than most people fancy.
“Dr. Handyside, and his demonstrator Mr. Hoggan, both told us that they had never seen so much steady, earnest work as since we joined the class, and expressed their opinion that the results were quite as valuable for the male students as for ourselves. With November 1st the lectures began, and everything went on satisfactorily for another ten days.
ON THE RIOT
In a moment a couple of dozen students came down from the benches, headed by Mr. Sanderson, Mr. Hoggan, Mr. Macleod, and Mr. Lyon, formed themselves into a regular body - guard in front, behind, and on each side, and, encompassed by them, we passed through the still howling crowd at the gate, and reached home with no other injuries than those inflicted on our dresses by the mud hurled at us by our chivalrous foes.”
The a dense crowd of lower class students along with street rowdies and gaping spectators surrounded the Surgeon’s Hall. Sophia led her party through the mass as decaying vegetation was hurled at them, the gate was slammed on their faces upon arrival. She was met with a row of “smoking and handing about whiskey bottles, while they abused us in the foulest language I have ever heard.”
George Hoggan organized and led the escort that protected the ladies through the gate into the hall. The noise of the crowed outside remained through the examination, at one point someone let a sheep into the hall. Professor Handyside suggested the girls sneak out the back door, but Sophia wanted to make a point, she was not one to be scared. She recruited gentlemen from the class to escort the women home, they continued the escort service for many days.
The city was split in two, no one openly supported the behavior of the male students but everyone had strong opinions of what the women students should do.
LEAVE - If a woman is going to push into a sphere she isn’t meant for, she should bear the unpleasantness which will surely follow
STAY - All matriculated students, regardless of sex had the right to lectures, examinations, and the amenities of university life.
Additional Aftermath
1871
In January, the women are fighting a petition against them and Sophia is speaking before a cathedral full of people, when describing the day of the riot she describes that she knew that
“Dr. Christison’s class assistant was one of the leading rioters, and the foul language he used could only be excused on the supposition I heard, that he was intoxicated"“
Sophia was encouraged to withdraw the word “intoxicated” when she doubled down saying “If Dr. Christion prefers that I should say he used the foul language when sober, I will withdraw the word “intoxicated.” She’s not wrong, but it doesn’t help the women’s case. Making weak men look silly only makes them angry.
The result - the women’s only option was to open an infirmary of their own, which was unlikely to happen [TCOTP, 133].
The worse result - Dr. Christison’s assistant sues Sophia for libel. The upside is the swell of public support including the newly formed “Committee for securing Complete Medical Education to Women in Edinburgh” who raises financial and legal support for the women. The court awarded an enormous sum of money to the plaintiff (in today’s dollars it would be around $150,000 - $200,000 Sophia Jex-Blake was charged for damages)
Edith Pechey points out the extreme injustice of the women first having to suffer the insults and then be saddled with the costs from the court case. It was
“We had begun to study simply because we saw no reason why women should not be the medical attendants of women. When we came in contact with such unexpected depths of moral grossness and brutality, we had burnt into our minds the strongest possible conviction that if such things were possible in the medical profession, women must, at any cost, force their way into it, for the sake of their sisters, who might otherwise be left at the mercy of such human brutes as these.”
June, up till now, the ladies were able to take many of the courses they needed through the Extra-mural School, but now they decided it was better if they stop lecturing to women students [TCOTP, 138].
In Autumn three of the students married: (I guess this means they stopped school also) [TCOTP, 140]. It alarmed one fan enough to write a letter to Sophia begging her and Edith to remain firm to the cause to the end.
Mary Anderson became Mrs. Marshall
Matilda Chaplin married William Ayrton (A university professor)
Helen Evans married Alexander Russel the editor of The Scotsman
The city was critical of any action which went against the Scottish tradition of free access to education for all.
A Year in Court
1872
Three new women apply for matriculation. They are accepted, then rejected, then allowed to sit for the entrance exam after Sophia’s lawers issue a legal opinion bringing damages against the university unless they are allowed. The three women pass.
The Scottsman, had always been a supporter of the women stated that the university is bound to allow the women to continue their instruction. It was surprising that more conservative newspapers such as the British Medical Journal, the Lancet and the Spectator and the Times all condemned the injustice by Edinburgh University. They didn’t like the negative attention the university brought to the profession.
In May they won a tiny battle, the Royal Dispensary, which previously rejected the ladies request for instruction was granted [TCOTP, 144].
October, a question goes out to the 18 medical staff, who’s in favor of admitting women students on the same terms as men, if you disagree suggest an alternative. In favor were three:
Professor Heron Watson
Professor Balfour
Professor Hughes Bennet
All 15 others opposed for various reasons: already too many male students, mixed classes would offend patients, inhibit teaching to male students. Mr. Maclagan suggested they form their own hospital, but then was worried that might detract funds from the infirmary so he backed off his position.
December the women were issued tickets of admission to the infirmary, but only to the wards of the three professors who invited them and only when the male students were not present.
“existing regulations in favour of female students be rescinded”
Rather out of heart… My head seems so tired…
Things seem to crowd on me so.
I’m nervous and shaky again, -feeling strength go out of me drop by drop.
Retreat from Edinburgh
1873 June
While the women prepared for finals the Sentaus appeal against the judgment for the women was decided. It was announced that back in 1869 the act of the Senatus admitting women was ultra vires and therefore the university had no responsibility whatever to the women they accepted and taken fees greatly in excess of those paid by male students.
The Committee for the Medical Education of Women in Edinburgh paid all the legal expenses and everyone decided against further appeal.
The failure was a bitter pill to swallow.
Though technically a loss, the battle again Edinburgh proved on a global scale that it wasn’t the smaller size of the female brain holding women back. The question of women’s ability to be a doctor was now proven to the public.
July, Sophia and others approach St. Andrews for permission to finish their studies, but were refused. In the mean time support was raised to introduce a bill in parliament to allow the education of women, but parliament was dissolved and the newly formed government wasn’t interested.
September
Three go on to Paris: Emily Bovell (1877), Mary Marshall & Matilda Chaplin Ayrton (1879)
October, Sophia and others return to Edinburgh to the Extra-mural lectures.
“During the winter of 1872-73, our never - failing friend, Dr. G. W. Balfour, had given us lectures on Practice of Medicine, and we had also had a course of Practical Anatomy with Dr. Hoggan (Dr. Handyside's late demonstrator), though unfortunately the latter class was technically "non - qualifying," because the University authorities, having learned to whom Dr. Hoggan wished to lecture, refused to "recognize" his lectures.
The final decision from the university:
Return to London
1874
By October, Sophia had returned to London to help open the London School of Medicine for Women.
Berne, Switzerland
1876
Sophia Jex-Black and Edith Pechey travel to Berne along with Annie Clarke to finish their studies. The notes section from Knowledge and Revolution indicate as many as sixteen Russian women received their degrees around this time, not sure if all were medicine.
Sophia obtains her license to become a registered physician [NWITLS, 204]
Ireland
1877
May 1877 Sophy Jex-Blake and Edith Pechey become official licentiates of The Irish College of Physicians and their names were included on the Medical Register of England
Edinburgh
1878
Sophia Jex-Black returns to Edinburgh to practice medicine. [NWITLS, 204]. It’s unclear why, only that it seems she was passed over for a key position at the London School. She arrived in June and opened a medical practice along with an outpatient clinic which became the Edinburgh Hospital and Dispensary for Women.
Sophia retires in 1899 at the age of 59 to a farm in Sussex. Her home remained open to former classmates, colleagues and especially young students and visiting physicians from around the world. She died in 1912 leaving a former student to remark:
“She it was, more tha anyone else, who compelled the gates of the medical profession to be opened to women. Through years of hostility and obloquy she never lost heart in her Cause; and, meeting violence with reason and coarseness with dignity, she won at last.”
Selected References
[NWITLS] Shearer BF, Shearer BS. Notable women in the life sciences : a biographical dictionary. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press; 1996.