Elizabeth Blackwell
The Crimean War
October 1853 - February 1856
The Crimean War was a military conflict fought between the Russian Empire against an alliance of France, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire. The war was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire.
In response to reports about the insufficient medical facilities for wounded British soldiers in the Crimean War, Florence Nightingale and a staff of 38 women volunteer nurses were sent to the Ottoman Empire by the Secretary of War, Sidney Herbert.
The majority of the conflict occurred on the Crimean Peninsula, with significant naval engagements in the Baltic and Pacific, and smaller battles in the Caucasus and the Balkans
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October 1853: War starts with Russian forces crossing into Ottoman territories.
September 1854: The Allied forces landed in Crimea and laid siege to the city of Sevastopol, home to Russia's Black Sea Fleet.
October 1854 - September 1855: Siege of Sevastopol, one of the most significant events of the war.
Scutari (Modern-day Üsküdar, Istanbul): Nightingale set up a nursing team in the British base hospital in Scutari. She implemented hygiene protocols, improving sanitation, nutrition, and setting standards for patient care. Nightingale's work reduced the hospital's death rate significantly. Her experience in the Crimean War exposed her to the idea that poor sanitary conditions lead to infection, which increased the death rate of soldiers. Her emphasis on hygiene and care standards revolutionized hospital design and sparked a new era in the profession of nursing.
February 1856: The Treaty of Paris ends the war. It curtailed Russian influence in Southeastern Europe, marking a turning point in geopolitical dynamics in Europe.
After returning from the war, Nightingale established a nursing school at St. Thomas' Hospital in London in 1860. Her practices revolutionized hospital sanitation methods worldwide, and her book "Notes on Nursing" served as the cornerstone of the curriculum at the Nightingale School and other nursing schools.
The Crimean War coincided with a significant expansion in global news coverage. It was one of the first wars to be extensively covered by correspondents embedded with military units. The Times of London sent war correspondent William Howard Russell to cover the war. Russell's reports on the deplorable conditions in military hospitals helped turn Nightingale into a national heroine. His dispatches brought widespread attention to the inadequate care and poor conditions experienced by the wounded soldiers. It's likely that news of Nightingale's efforts reached many people through these new channels of communication. Furthermore, the popularity and reach of her image were significantly enhanced by the newly developed technology of photography, the increasing literacy rates in the UK, and the growing influence of print media.
The advent of the telegraph also played a significant role in real-time reporting, sparking public interest and contributing to Nightingale's fame. She was portrayed as "The Lady with the Lamp," further cementing her status as an emblem of Victorian femininity, self-sacrifice, and dedication to the medical profession.
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Florence Nightingale had a significant influence on many individuals, both women and men, inspiring them to take up careers in nursing and public health or motivating them to bring about reform in these areas. A few notable women include:
Clara Barton (1821-1912): An independent nurse during the American Civil War, Clara Barton was inspired by the work of Nightingale. She went on to found the American Red Cross and was a driving force behind the Geneva Convention's extension to cover the sick and wounded during wartime.
Linda Richards (1841-1930): Known as America's first trained nurse, Richards had read about Nightingale's work during the Crimean War. Inspired, she went on to establish nursing training programs in the United States and Japan, and created the first system for keeping individual medical records for hospitalized patients.
Agnes Elizabeth Jones (1832-1868): Jones was one of the first trained Nightingale Nurses and was personally chosen by Florence Nightingale to be the superintendent at the Liverpool Workhouse Infirmary. She transformed the Workhouse and its Infirmary, introducing Nightingale's principles of nursing and sanitation.
Edith Cavell (1865-1915): A British nurse, Cavell was reportedly inspired by the work of Nightingale. She is celebrated for saving the lives of soldiers from both sides without distinction and in helping some 200 Allied soldiers escape from German-occupied Belgium during World War I.
Dame Cicely Saunders (1918-2005): Saunders was influenced by Nightingale's holistic approach to patient care. She went on to found the hospice movement, emphasizing the importance of palliative care in modern medicine.
Nightingale's influence transcended borders and generations, inspiring countless individuals worldwide to pursue careers in healthcare and advocate for improved medical treatment for all.
Elizabeth Garrett Anderson
In 1859 Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell traveled to England for a series of lectures titled
“Medicine as a Profession for Ladies”
The US Civil War
April 12, 1861 - April 9, 1865
The Civil War was a significant conflict in the history of the United States, fought between the northern states (known as the Union) and the southern states that seceded to form the Confederacy. The primary catalysts for the war were deep-rooted economic and social differences between the North and South, particularly on the issue of the expansion of slavery into new territories.
When the Civil War broke out, Clara Barton independently organized aid and supplies for the wounded on the front lines. She didn't have any formal training in nursing but learned on the job, often in the midst of battles.
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Leading up to the Civil War:
1854: The Kansas-Nebraska Act is passed, allowing these territories to decide for themselves whether to allow slavery, leading to violent conflicts known as "Bleeding Kansas."
1857: In the Dred Scott decision, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that Congress does not have the power to prohibit slavery in federal territories, further fueling tensions.
1859: Abolitionist John Brown raids the federal armory at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia), hoping to incite a slave rebellion.
November 6, 1860: Abraham Lincoln is elected President of the United States, causing several Southern states to fear that their rights to own slaves might be soon abolished.
Start of the Civil War:
December 20, 1860: South Carolina is the first state to secede from the Union.
April 12, 1861: Confederate forces open fire on Fort Sumter in South Carolina, marking the start of the Civil War.
Major events during the Civil War:
July 21, 1861: First major battle of the war, the First Battle of Bull Run (also known as First Manassas), takes place in Virginia, ending in a Confederate victory.
April 6-7, 1862: The Battle of Shiloh in Tennessee marks one of the deadliest battles in the early war, ending in a strategic Union victory.
September 17, 1862: The Battle of Antietam in Maryland is the bloodiest single-day battle in American history, with approximately 22,000 casualties. This Union victory leads President Lincoln to issue the Emancipation Proclamation.
January 1, 1863: The Emancipation Proclamation takes effect, declaring slaves in Confederate-held territory to be free (though in practice, it had limited immediate effect).
July 1-3, 1863: The Battle of Gettysburg in Pennsylvania results in a major Union victory, turning the tide of the war.
July 4, 1863: The Siege of Vicksburg, Mississippi ends, giving the Union control over the Mississippi River and splitting the Confederacy.
End of the Civil War and its aftermath:
April 9, 1865: Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrenders to Union General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House in Virginia, effectively ending the Civil War.
April 14, 1865: President Lincoln is assassinated by John Wilkes Booth.
December 6, 1865: The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, abolishing slavery throughout the United States.
Major results of the war included the preservation of the Union, the end of slavery, and a long and difficult period of Reconstruction. The war significantly altered the political, economic, and social fabric of the United States. It also resulted in the deaths of approximately 620,000 soldiers and an unknown number of civilians, making it one of the deadliest conflicts in American history.
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The American Civil War had a significant impact on women and their roles in nursing and medicine. At the outbreak of the war, the nursing profession was almost entirely male. However, the desperate need for medical care during the war led to the large-scale involvement of women as nurses. Some key influences include:
Increase in Female Nurses: Thousands of women, North and South, volunteered their services to the war effort as nurses. Women from all walks of life stepped forward to nurse the wounded and sick. The most famous was probably Clara Barton, who independently organized relief for soldiers, earning her the nickname "Angel of the Battlefield." After the war, she founded the American Red Cross.
Professionalization of Nursing: Prior to the Civil War, nursing was not seen as a respectable profession for women. The work done by women during the war helped to change this perception and led to a rise in the professionalization of nursing. Florence Nightingale's model of professional nurse training had a profound influence in shaping the nursing profession, and her ideas spread to America as well.
Dorothea Dix: Appointed Superintendent of Army Nurses by the Union Army, Dorothea Dix was responsible for setting up field hospitals, recruiting nurses, and even organizing ambulance services. While she had strict requirements for her nurses (they had to be middle-aged, plain looking and wear unadorned uniforms), her efforts were an important part of the shift towards professionalizing nursing and established it as a suitable job for women.
Post-War Medical Careers: The war showed many women that they were capable of doing jobs traditionally done by men. While they were still barred from serving as fully qualified doctors in the army, the experience they gained during the war led some women to pursue medical careers after the war. Dr. Mary Edwards Walker, for example, served as a surgeon during the Civil War and is the only woman to have received the Medal of Honor.
The American Civil War, much like the Crimean War had done for British nursing, dramatically changed the face of nursing in America. Women proved themselves capable in a field that had previously been dominated by men, leading to the widespread acceptance and growth of the nursing profession in the decades following the war.
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Clara Barton, born Clarissa Harlowe Barton, was a pioneering figure in nursing who founded the American Red Cross. Here is an overview of her life:
Born: December 25, 1821, in North Oxford, Massachusetts.
Education: Barton was primarily home-schooled by her older siblings and was particularly influenced by her older brother David. She was a prodigious learner and excelled in subjects such as geography and mathematics.
Teaching Career: At the age of 17, she started a career as a teacher without any formal education in the field. She would later further her own education in this period by pursuing writing and languages.
Civil Service Career: In the mid-1850s, Barton moved to Washington, D.C., and started working in the U.S. Patent Office, a relatively rare government job for a woman at the time.
Civil War Service: When the Civil War broke out, she independently organized aid and supplies for the wounded on the front lines. She didn't have any formal training in nursing but learned on the job, often in the midst of battles.
After the Civil War: Barton worked on missing soldiers' cases and eventually became interested in the work of the International Red Cross during a trip to Europe.
Founded American Red Cross: On May 21, 1881, Barton established the American Red Cross, serving as its president until 1904. She broadened the organization's mandate to include helping victims of peacetime disasters, not just war.
While Clara Barton didn't have formal medical or nursing training, her practical experience during the Civil War was substantial, and her leadership of the American Red Cross has left a lasting legacy on the fields of nursing and disaster relief.
Austro-Prussian War
The Austro-Prussian War, also known as the Seven Weeks' War, was a conflict that took place from June 14 to August 23, 1866, between the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire. Driven by the ambitions of Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck, the war was part of his plan to unify the numerous German states under Prussian leadership and to diminish Austrian influence over these states. The decisive battle took place at Königgrätz (Sadowa) in Bohemia on July 3, where Prussia won a significant victory, effectively deciding the outcome of the war. The conflict concluded with the Peace of Prague, which dissolved the German Confederation and led to the creation of the North German Confederation under Prussian control. Despite its brief duration, the Austro-Prussian War was a critical step in the process that led to the unification of Germany in 1871.
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June 14, 1866: The war officially begins when Prussia, led by King Wilhelm I and his Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, declares war on Austria and its allies within the German Confederation. The Prussian troops are led by General Helmuth von Moltke.
June 27, 1866: Battle of Langensalza takes place in Thuringia, Germany. The Hanoverian army, allied with Austria, achieves a Pyrrhic victory over Prussia but is then forced to surrender two days later due to being outnumbered and outflanked.
July 3, 1866: The Battle of Königgrätz (also known as the Battle of Sadowa), the decisive battle of the war, takes place in Bohemia, in present-day Czech Republic. The Prussian forces win a decisive victory over the Austrians, effectively deciding the outcome of the war.
July 22, 1866: The Battle of Lissa occurs on the Adriatic Sea, where the Austrian fleet defeats the Italian fleet (Italy was Prussia's ally in the war). Despite this naval victory, Austria's defeat on land was the determining factor in the war's outcome.
July 26, 1866: The Battle of Blumenau, the last major conflict of the war, takes place. Despite an Austrian victory, it was not enough to reverse the tide of the war.
August 23, 1866: The Peace of Prague is signed, ending the war. The treaty confirms Prussia's leadership among the German states and effectively dissolves the German Confederation. Austria agrees to remain out of German affairs. The north German states unite under Prussian leadership in the North German Confederation, setting the stage for the complete unification of Germany in 1871.
“An education in medicine was absolutely unattainable in the United States”
1868
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Born in France, Madeleine Brès was the first French woman to obtain a medical degree. Despite initial opposition due to her gender, she was admitted to the University of Paris (Sorbonne) Faculty of Medicine in 1868. She studied under renowned faculty members and completed her degree in 1875, with her thesis on breastfeeding and its importance for child health and survival. After graduation, Brès dedicated her career to promoting women's and children's health. She also advocated for the admission of more women into medical schools.
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Born in the United States, Mary Putnam Jacobi was one of the most esteemed women physicians of her time. She moved to Paris in 1868 to pursue medical studies, as women were not admitted to many medical schools in the U.S. She attended the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Paris, where she earned her medical degree in 1871. Jacobi's medical research often countered prevalent misconceptions about women's health, and she was a strong advocate for women's rights, particularly in education and medicine.
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Born in the UK, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson was the first woman to qualify as a physician and surgeon in Britain. However, she faced significant obstacles in her medical career due to her gender. This led her to move to France to pursue further education. She started her medical studies at the University of Paris Faculty of Medicine in 1869 and completed her degree in 1870. After returning to the UK, Anderson was pivotal in opening the medical profession to women in the country. She co-founded the first hospital staffed by women, the New Hospital for Women, and the London School of Medicine for Women, where she served as a dean.
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Born in Russia, Ekaterina Goncharova was one of the pioneering figures in medicine during the late 19th century. She moved to Paris around 1868 to pursue her medical studies at the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Paris (Sorbonne). In 1870, (possibly due to the Franco-Prussian War) she moved to Bern. Goncharova returned to the University of Paris in 1877 and successfully completed her medical degree.
“We cannot help observing many physicians and surgeons who do not appear to be superior in ability to average women.”
Franco Prussian War
“By her ardor and hard work, by her zeal in the service of the hospital, Mme. Bres has justified the opening of our courses to students of the female sex and won the respect of all the students with home she worked.”